Building a Successful Corporation

A preliminary, albeit cursory review of literature on the topic of corporate success indicates that it is a vital element in the process of bringing about a vibrant economy and improved standard of living (Kay, 1995). With this understanding in mind, the researcher arrived at the conclusion that the topic of building a successful corporation merits further research from several different points of view; therefore, this proposal is presented in the interest of additional research.THE PROBLEM The researcher will conduct this study and write the subsequent thesis in order to adequately define and understand the process of building a successful corporation. Indeed, successful corporations are the backbone of the international economy, and add endless value to the human experience; therefore, it is both timely and valuable to better understand how and why successful corporations are created.THE METHOD The researcher will utilize an extensive variety of written works on the subject of outs ourcing as research material, in addition to Internet research and interviews with individuals knowledgeable in the subject matter. Information derived from these sources will be interpreted and presented along with relevant charts, tables and graphs to employ a thorough research method. THE FINDINGSThe researcher will present findings in a sufficiently technical, yet easily interpreted format, designed to allow the thesis to be utilized as a strategic planning tool for other firms. The findings will be presented with thorough documentation and explanation within the text of the thesis. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of the study is to define what constitutes a successful corporation, examine the case studies of successful corporations within that definition, and provide an overall stronger understanding of this topic.IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY This research is relevant and important because successful corporations are valuable not only to the United States, but to every nation that prides itself on offering people the opportunity to earn a fair wage for their labors; a wage that allows for a comfortable standard of living and the chance to obtain comfortable housing, quality medical care, and all of the other trappings that allow for prosperity and well-being.Undoubtedly, the business community needs to fully understand what success will mean for a corporation, as well as some of the best practices that other firms have used to gain success. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY The study will center on a balanced analysis of the issue of corporate success to determine if it provides an immediate contribution to the economic, social, and moral prosperity of the United States, or perhaps it is just a step in the evolution of the American economy that will lead to economic growth and prosperity in the long term.The analysis of this phenomenon, by its very nature, will lead the researcher to analyze from a myriad of viewpoints; undoubtedly, there is a political element to the to pic, as well as a â€Å"trickle-down† effect that manifests itself in the buying decisions of individual consumers, businesses and industries. By viewing the topic one of human as well as business interest, a unique perspective will be achieved, adding to the breadth and validity of the research. Bibliography Kay, J. A. (1995). Foundations of Corporate Success: How Business Strategies Add Value. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The case of Jones v Padavatton Essay Example

The case of Jones v Padavatton Essay Example The case of Jones v Padavatton Essay The case of Jones v Padavatton Essay Essay Topic: Law The case of Jones v Padavatton concerned whether or not a legally enforceable contract existed between the parties, in this case a mother and daughter. The judgements of Salmon LJ and Fenton Atkinson LJ, although reaching the same conclusion have very different reasoning. Salmon LJ considered that two main factors needed to be addressed; whether or not the parties had intended a legally binding contract, and whether the terms of the contract were sufficient to be legally enforceable. The English law operates generally on an objective approach based on what a reasonable person in the position of the parties would have intended. Salmon LJ follows this approach in his judgement, stating it is a presumption of fact that when arrangements are made between family members, they are not intended to create a legal relationship but are rather based on mutual ties of trust and affection. This presumption was established by Atkins LJ in his explanation of the case Balfour v Balfour and is cited by Salmon LJ, however he does go on to accept that in some circumstances just because a, Contracting party is unlikely to extend his pound of flesh does not mean he has no legal right to. I consider that the principle illustrated by Balfour v Balfour, although fundamental for many cases, may not be so relevant considering the circumstances of this case. In a society of increased domestic disruption, illustrated through statistics such as rising divorce rates, it is very arguable that family arrangements are becoming more likely to be intended as legally enforceable. In considering the very special circumstances of this case, I consider it is possible to distinguish it from that of Balfour v Balfour and rather follow the approach of Fenton Atkinson LJ, studying the specific intention of the parties rather than the presumption derived from the case of Balfour v Balfour. Salmon LJ considers the second factor to be addressed is whether the terms of the agreement were sufficient enough to be legally enforceable. He considers the intentions of the daughter were clear- to leave Washington and study for the Bar in England, but did not consider the mother would have intended to give up all her rights concerning the house. The arrangements were too vague to have contractual intent. Similarly there is no evidence that the mother ever intended her daughter to receive any more than $200 in West-Indian terms, a month maintenance support. On this point I agree with Salmon. In English law, if the terms of an offer are not certain, the resulting agreement can fail. I do not consider that the terms were certain enough to ensure a legally binding contract, and here agree with the explanation from Fenton Atkinson LJ, that the responsibility was for the daughter to establish a contract in relation to the house and she totally failed to do so. Salmon LJ considered alongside this, that the terns of the offer could not possibly exceed five years from 1962 considering all circumstances of the case, and thus the daughter was entitled to nothing further under the original agreement Salmon LJ concluded his judgement by addressing the counterclaim referred to by the CCJ, and states that a reasonable compromise should be reached on the figures, so as not to exacerbate ill feeling between parties. This view in considered too by Fenton Atkinson LJ. Fenton Atkinson LJ addresses the issues of consideration and intention in his judgement; issues which I have to consider are far more relevant to the specifics of this case. He addresses several points in his judgement, firstly whether the agreements made between the parties were intended to be legally enforceable, secondly did the mother intend to be legally bound to support her daughter for an uncertain period of time, and thirdly did the daughter assume a contractual obligation to complete her studies. Fenton Atkinson LJ concludes that consideration was given by the daughter in the form of executed consideration, evident through her move from Washington to London, but does not consider that here consideration can determine whether the parties intended a legally binding contract. The courts generally apply an objective approach when studying intention, however I agree with Collins, who states that this objective approach conflicts with reality. Fenton Atkinson LJ, following this approach, states that it is the history of this case which most accurately points to the intentions of the parties, and highlights three important factors. Firstly, that the payments of $200 were accepted by the daughter without any indication that the mother was contractually bound to a larger sum, secondly, that when in 1964 The mother bought the property, many matters had been left open, such as the control of rents, and occupation boundaries. The final factor highlighted, and which I consider to be of huge significance, is the behaviour of the daughter when her mother visited. The daughter was evidently extremely upset that the issue had become litigated, and stated that a mother does not normally sue her daughter. This is perhaps the strongest indication that the daughter had never intended legal consequences to arise from the agreement. Fenton Atkinson LJ was satisfied that no legally binding contract had been intended, and the arrangements had been based on mutual trust. He held that the mothers claim for possession should succeed, and the appeal allowed. Although Salmon LJ and Fenton Atkinson LJ reached the same final judgement, I do not consider that the reasoning of Salmon was as relevant to this case as that of Fenton Atkinson LJ. As I have mentioned above, the objective approach applied by Salmon LJ cannot be applied in every case and may in fact be becoming outdated. The approach adopted by Fenton Atkinson LJ must be considered more appropriate for the very special circumstances of this case, and I agree that the intention of the parties was best determined through the behavioural history of the mother and her daughter rather than the judgement of Balfour v Balfour. I do not deny that the reasoning of Salmon LJ is that which the majority would be likely to adopt, and agree with many other factors he addresses, such as the judgement of reasonable time not exceeding five years. I cannot however conclude that his reasoning is of such relevance to this case, as that of Fenton Atkinson LJ.

Email overconfidence is a dangerous thing - Emphasis

Email overconfidence is a dangerous thing Email overconfidence is a dangerous thing Considering that an estimated 247 billion emails are sent each day, you might think we would all be dab hands at getting our messages across. But a study published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology reveals that, while we believe we’re making ourselves clear, we actually need to be more careful. Lost in translation The tone and context of your email is likely to be misinterpreted in at least 15 per cent of emails, according to the study. And part of the problem is the fact that we are overly confident that what we write will be understood as we mean it to be. A series of five experiments showed that email senders overestimate how accurately the tone of their message will be identified. Sarcasm and humour are particularly problematic: trying to express either in email is clearly a risk. However, the most notable result from the experiments was not how many times the reader misunderstood the tone, but the disparity between how often the writer expected to be understood and how often they actually were. In one experiment, half the participants emailed a series of statements – a mixture of serious and sarcastic – to the other half, who had to deduce how each statement should be read. While the sending group expected 97 per cent to be recognised, only 84 per cent were. Put into real terms, that means almost one fifth of your recipients might be misled, confused or even offended by your emails. But my colleagues understand me Do they, though? Further experiments showed that the success rate in interpreting tone was the same whether the recipient knew the sender or not, meaning equal care is needed whether writing to a new client or a well-known colleague. Less surprisingly, the recognition of tone was identified correctly most often in spoken statements – though still not as regularly as the speaker predicted. Evidently, without the non-verbal cues – the facial expressions, body language and gestures – of face-to-face communication, any ambiguity of tone in your writing may well lead your reader to misunderstand your meaning. So judge your recipient well, or joke at your own risk. Read the full white paper, ‘Lost in translation’. Our blog contains lots of tips on how to write good emails, and we also run an in-company course on effective email writing.

LOGISTICS & OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

LOGISTICS & OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 2 - Essay Example There are a wide range of definitions based on main logistics functions within organizational and production processes. Taking into account business definition, "logistics is defined as a business planning framework for the management of material, service, information and capital flows. It includes the increasingly complex information, communication and control systems required in today's business environment " (Logistix Partners Oy, Helsinki, FI, 1996, cited What is logistics 2005). Another definition reflects overall purpose of logistics and states that: "Logistics means having the right thing, at the right place, at the right time" (What is logistics 2005). The latter definition is more appropriate for today's business environment because it reflects the nature of business itself and customers expectations typical for present day economics. For many years, production inefficiencies have been criticized and scrutinized in order to increase productivity. There has been little close examination of possible savings in the area of physical distribution, now known as logistics. There is a movement towards a closer analysis of all aspects of logistics. This is particularly important where selling and distribution costs are high (Barnett, 1996).

Pipeline Project in Canada Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pipeline Project in Canada - Essay Example However, it needs a Presidential Permit as aforementioned. The projects overall positive effects will be considered. The pipeline project is in accordance firstly with the National Environment Policy Act. However an alternate route still needs to be found to avoid the Sand Hills region of Nebraska, which is an environmentally sensitive area (Flynn & Burnett, 2012). About The Project Many republicans, labor groups and industry groups support the pipeline project as they believe that it would bring about the opportunity of thousands of jobs in the US not only during its construction, but after it as well. It would also reduce dependence on oil from abroad since it would lead to the US having access to the largest oil reserve. Since if the project continues, it would bring in 700,000 barrels of oil to US daily which would be less the price and double the amount that it currently imports from Middle East. It is a project that needs to be ready and started and Republicans do not understan d Obama’s move for delaying the project (Belogolova, 2011). The project is also estimated to bring in an increase of $20 million spending in private sector of the economy, and at a point where oil demand is weak and unemployment is rising, it will spur the economy. Also, if this project is approved, it will spur all aspects of the economy, which is becoming weaker and more dependent on imports (Belogolova, 2011). During construction of the pipeline alone, there is estimated to be a $20 billion increase in spending in the economy, and 118,000 jobs are expected to be created as well. 585 million dollars are also expected to be raised for both local and state taxes that are going to be on the route of the pipeline (transcanada). Many labor unions have also signed with TransCanada because of the perceived benefits of the project on jobs, employment and revenue. They have even signed terms of agreement with the company however, due to President Obama’s recall, their jobs ar e not established as of yet. This is also a privately financed project and therefore it will create jobs in manufacturing and construction and doesn’t need a single penny from the government. This effect of increased demand and supply will also have an effect on other factors in the economy as demand for goods and services in other interrelated industries will increase around the area of the pipeline project. This is called the multiplier effect. It has also been established through scrutiny and survey that it would have a limited detrimental impact on the US economy and would rather enhance the security of the economy. America’s workers want to work with this project which is important even for President Obama (Parformak, Service., & al, 2011). The four International Unions are also committed to work on this project as soon as the President gives the green light. Canada is a new player in the world energy market with the newly discovered oil sands. The current pipelin e is finding it difficult to keep up with the new discoveries and bulk of oil. Also Canada and U.S are strong trading partners; however Canada is in strong demand now due to this new discovery of oil sands and if US keeps delaying the construction of this pipeline project, Canada will give in to the oil hungry world that seems to show more interest. And these energy sources are a stable energy source and therefor US should realize this and agree soon. This can also break the OPEC hold and if Obama

New technolgy work and the economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

New technolgy work and the economy - Essay Example It complements other organizational management indicatives in providing a focus on the sustenance of competitive advantage. Every company has its own unique knowledge management strategy. To understand how knowledge management affects work and the economy, it is important to understand what it is in all aspects (Christensen, 2003). There is no universal definition of knowledge management, but a few experts have tried to put to words what this kind of management entails. Knowledge management is the term used to refer to the â€Å"collection of processes that govern the creation, dissemination, and utilization of knowledge† (Newman, 2002). It can also be said to be the systematic process by which information is found, selected, organized, distilled and presented. This systematic process is carried out in a way that serves to improve the employees’ understanding of a particular area of interest. In other words knowledge management is a process that should be used to enhance the objectives and goals of the organization (Nonaka, 2002). Knowledge management allows an organization to achieve its goals and objectives. This means that knowledge management is an important factor that contributes to the organization’s long term success without putting too much strain on the existing resources. All the different definitions are similar in that they emphasize the importance of the organization as a whole in the process of knowledge management. Most of the definitions point out that knowledge emanates from individuals and that not a single one of them knows everything. It is therefore important to manage all this knowledge so that everyone on the organization can gain something from one another (Christensen, 2003). The aim of any organization is to ensure that it is as profitable as possible. Mnprofitability can be achieved through many ways, including proper knowledge management. Effective knowledge management makes it possible for a company to serve customers to

Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning

Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background All through the years, there has been an increasing emphasis on teaching English as an instrument for communication, and technology has played a critical function in facilitating authentic communication. The movement of language teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of language systems to the use and communicative value of the spoken language in the everyday setting (Vanderplank, 1993). In a sense, the efficacy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional channel of media to send out a message, to significantly improve communication and comprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia technology (like TV, computers, networks, emails video cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready-only memories (CD-ROMs) and interactive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the target language into the language classroom. In this meticulous setting, learners slowly expand their language acquisition by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target language. According to one of the most outstanding theories of second language acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large amount of language unconsciously through ample comprehensible input. The Input Hypothesis, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target language in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible input by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In other words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible input is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers struggle to employ a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition. Many researchers have presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, video, and TV) have helpful effects on language learning due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995; Egbert Jessup, 1996; Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language performance in reading, listening comprehension and vocabulary recognition. One survey study by the American Association of School Administrators showed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors believe that technology has enhanced students learning considerably. Similarly, many English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that educational technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking. Similarly, television programs and videos have created a place in the communication of information and are powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate not only visually through pictures but also aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The subtitle, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the dialogue or narration of the programs audio track, expanding comprehension and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant general movement indicates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more systematically processed than if either dialogue or subtitles are presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the usefulness of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (1961a) findings support the between-channel redun dancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), comprehension will be superior than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as identical information from the visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this: information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through different sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More explicitly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the incoming information. However, a contrasting theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that human can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel presentation of information is used in the teaching-learning process. Along with this contentious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel presentation, an awareness of and interest in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials. Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual context, such as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form are more probable to activate both coding systems in the processing than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input foundations get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the content, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition , a lot of teachers consider subtitles shed some new light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its potential in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996; Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984; Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993; Parks, 1994; Vanderplank, 1993). 1.1.1 Subtitle Subtitles, which are English written subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this study, are the written version of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the bottom of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms: the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are not automatically visible to the viewer; however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By contrast, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive function of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not avail able in some areas of the world, subtitling technology is broadly accessible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television Decoder Circuitry Act requiring that all new televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With reference to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of people in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such as Taiwan and Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing. Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are helpful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improvement of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively. For the benefits of the multimedia approach, ESL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The focus on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and promising approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989; Borras Lafayette, 1994; Ellsworth, 1992; Garza, 1991; Goldman, 1996; Goldman Goldman, 1988; Markham, 1989; Nugent, 1983; Parlato, 1985; Price, 1983; Vanderplank, 1991; Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994; Wilson Koskinen, 1986). Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrating the benefits of the use of subtitles for the hearing-impaired, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. Thus, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements. This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research focuses on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learning English as a foreign language in Iran. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Many people in Iran have problems when it comes to communicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills; therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. . Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for English in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are going to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning movie solution. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran [English as a foreign language (EFL)]. In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a particular video episode, as evaluated by a Content Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition. 1.4 Significance of the Study Teachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehension, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the body of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching 1.5 Hypotheses This study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency. Ho 1: There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. Ho 2: There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question 1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly? 2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly? 3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly? 1.7 Definition of the Terms The definitions are given here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study. 1.7.1 Subtitle Subtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this research and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the identical language shown at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.2 Closed Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding device installed in the television set or a special decoder machine. 1.7.3 Open Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST) An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST includes the two subtests: vocabulary and content comprehension. 1.7.5 Content Vocabulary The vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects 1.7.6 Content Comprehension Content comprehension that focuses mainly on the whole story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video 1.8 Limitation of the Study The researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL learners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants. 1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the foundation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potential misunderstanding. Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subtitles. It starts with a theoretical review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the capacity theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, normal reading ability, and language learners is offered. Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses testing formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the data collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied. In Chapter IV, the analyses are performed to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantitative results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results. The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesize the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented. CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing Theories In many communities around the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personal, socio-cultural, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Historical documents indicate that individuals and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language contact, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout history. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results; thus there is a requirement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure. Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is said to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988; Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987; Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984; Asher, 1980; Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985; Belloni Jongsma, 1978; Bernstein, 1955; Entin Klare, 1985; Osako Anders, 1983; Renninger, 1988; Stevens, 1982). However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towards a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why exciting tools such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, composed of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become involved in reading the specific subject matter. Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free recall and extensive interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and Deci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater conceptual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students. The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models: integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be identified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to procure a better future through social mobility; in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is often considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989). In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this fact in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly indicated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, Rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with voice-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is accompanied by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the possibility of vocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987 ) to address this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompanied by the script. Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning: the need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language [cultural openness], the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible [social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers]. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forces—integrativeness minus fear of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted member of the tar get group; fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the countries like Iran where people are brightly proud of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms â€Å"acculturation,† that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. Under this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation [social integration psychological openness] namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups. There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the dominant group like it seems to have the same role with English language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the middle east languages. However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schema theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens. 2.2 Schema Theory According to Bartlett (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time; adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory; details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also play a facilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content; in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without serious obstacles (Anderson, 1987; Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researche rs usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995; Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996; Adams Collins, 1977; Anderson Gipe, 1983; Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977; Baldwin et al., 1985; Carrell Eisterhold, 1983; Lipson, 1983; Paul, 1959; Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982; Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979; Yousef, 1968; Zegarra Zinger, 1981). However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majority. Second language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). 2.3 The Single Channel Learning Theory The single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the central nervous system (Trave Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background All through the years, there has been an increasing emphasis on teaching English as an instrument for communication, and technology has played a critical function in facilitating authentic communication. The movement of language teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of language systems to the use and communicative value of the spoken language in the everyday setting (Vanderplank, 1993). In a sense, the efficacy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional channel of media to send out a message, to significantly improve communication and comprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia technology (like TV, computers, networks, emails video cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready-only memories (CD-ROMs) and interactive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the target language into the language classroom. In this meticulous setting, learners slowly expand their language acquisition by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target language. According to one of the most outstanding theories of second language acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large amount of language unconsciously through ample comprehensible input. The Input Hypothesis, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target language in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible input by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In other words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible input is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers struggle to employ a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition. Many researchers have presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, video, and TV) have helpful effects on language learning due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995; Egbert Jessup, 1996; Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language performance in reading, listening comprehension and vocabulary recognition. One survey study by the American Association of School Administrators showed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors believe that technology has enhanced students learning considerably. Similarly, many English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that educational technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking. Similarly, television programs and videos have created a place in the communication of information and are powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate not only visually through pictures but also aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The subtitle, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the dialogue or narration of the programs audio track, expanding comprehension and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant general movement indicates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more systematically processed than if either dialogue or subtitles are presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the usefulness of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (1961a) findings support the between-channel redun dancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), comprehension will be superior than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as identical information from the visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this: information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through different sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More explicitly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the incoming information. However, a contrasting theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that human can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel presentation of information is used in the teaching-learning process. Along with this contentious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel presentation, an awareness of and interest in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials. Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual context, such as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form are more probable to activate both coding systems in the processing than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input foundations get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the content, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition , a lot of teachers consider subtitles shed some new light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its potential in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996; Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984; Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993; Parks, 1994; Vanderplank, 1993). 1.1.1 Subtitle Subtitles, which are English written subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this study, are the written version of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the bottom of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms: the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are not automatically visible to the viewer; however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By contrast, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive function of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not avail able in some areas of the world, subtitling technology is broadly accessible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television Decoder Circuitry Act requiring that all new televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With reference to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of people in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such as Taiwan and Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing. Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are helpful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improvement of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively. For the benefits of the multimedia approach, ESL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The focus on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and promising approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989; Borras Lafayette, 1994; Ellsworth, 1992; Garza, 1991; Goldman, 1996; Goldman Goldman, 1988; Markham, 1989; Nugent, 1983; Parlato, 1985; Price, 1983; Vanderplank, 1991; Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994; Wilson Koskinen, 1986). Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrating the benefits of the use of subtitles for the hearing-impaired, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. Thus, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements. This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research focuses on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learning English as a foreign language in Iran. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Many people in Iran have problems when it comes to communicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills; therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. . Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for English in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are going to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning movie solution. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran [English as a foreign language (EFL)]. In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a particular video episode, as evaluated by a Content Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition. 1.4 Significance of the Study Teachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehension, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the body of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching 1.5 Hypotheses This study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency. Ho 1: There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. Ho 2: There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question 1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly? 2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly? 3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly? 1.7 Definition of the Terms The definitions are given here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study. 1.7.1 Subtitle Subtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this research and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the identical language shown at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.2 Closed Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding device installed in the television set or a special decoder machine. 1.7.3 Open Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST) An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST includes the two subtests: vocabulary and content comprehension. 1.7.5 Content Vocabulary The vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects 1.7.6 Content Comprehension Content comprehension that focuses mainly on the whole story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video 1.8 Limitation of the Study The researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL learners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants. 1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the foundation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potential misunderstanding. Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subtitles. It starts with a theoretical review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the capacity theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, normal reading ability, and language learners is offered. Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses testing formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the data collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied. In Chapter IV, the analyses are performed to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantitative results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results. The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesize the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented. CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing Theories In many communities around the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personal, socio-cultural, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Historical documents indicate that individuals and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language contact, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout history. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results; thus there is a requirement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure. Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is said to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988; Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987; Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984; Asher, 1980; Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985; Belloni Jongsma, 1978; Bernstein, 1955; Entin Klare, 1985; Osako Anders, 1983; Renninger, 1988; Stevens, 1982). However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towards a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why exciting tools such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, composed of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become involved in reading the specific subject matter. Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free recall and extensive interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and Deci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater conceptual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students. The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models: integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be identified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to procure a better future through social mobility; in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is often considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989). In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this fact in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly indicated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, Rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with voice-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is accompanied by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the possibility of vocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987 ) to address this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompanied by the script. Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning: the need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language [cultural openness], the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible [social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers]. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forces—integrativeness minus fear of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted member of the tar get group; fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the countries like Iran where people are brightly proud of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms â€Å"acculturation,† that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. Under this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation [social integration psychological openness] namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups. There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the dominant group like it seems to have the same role with English language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the middle east languages. However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schema theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens. 2.2 Schema Theory According to Bartlett (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time; adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory; details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also play a facilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content; in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without serious obstacles (Anderson, 1987; Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researche rs usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995; Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996; Adams Collins, 1977; Anderson Gipe, 1983; Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977; Baldwin et al., 1985; Carrell Eisterhold, 1983; Lipson, 1983; Paul, 1959; Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982; Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979; Yousef, 1968; Zegarra Zinger, 1981). However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majority. Second language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). 2.3 The Single Channel Learning Theory The single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the central nervous system (Trave